Aims of this website

We have a number of goals for this project:

1) provide a county atlas showing the distribution of all amphibians of North Carolina, based on vetted records
2) describe the features of the species, including the key characteristics that distinguish each from similar species
3) describe the life history and ecology of all amphibians of North Carolina
4) describe the habitat associations of the species, based on literature sources and our own observations
5) compile information on the conservation status of each species, describing their specific risk factors and estimating their probability of becoming extirpated from the state
6) provide opportunities for citizen scientists and others to contribute to our knowledge of North Carolina’s amphibians

One of our primary goals is to provide a detailed account of the distribution, life history, ecology, and conservation biology of all amphibians of North Carolina, along with citations of pertinent scientific literature. Our aim is to provide a general overview of each species based on studies from throughout its range, along with information that is relevant to North Carolina populations whenever it is available.

From a conservation perspective, we often have large gaps in knowledge about the specific habitat requirements of species and their ability to tolerate anthropogenic disturbance. We encourage individuals to submit records to the site that will be included in our database, and to include as much information as possible on the habitats where specimens were found and other pertinent life history information. Calling records, for example, will help pinpoint the breeding season and document changes in breeding phenology in future decades, while information on how far a specimen was found from a breeding pond will provide information on the size needed for terrestrial buffers. Details about submitting records can be found under the Citizen Science tab at the top of the page.

Stats

Number of NC species: 107

Number of records: 25,005

The First Tetrapods

Amphibians constitute the third largest group of terrestrial vertebrates, with well over 8,000 extant species known, and many more being described each year. They include the frogs, salamanders, and caecilians, and reach their greatest diversity in the tropics. The documented species include around 7,500 species of frogs, 770 species of salamanders, and 215 species of caecilians. Most frogs live in tropical and subtropical regions, while salamanders reach their greatest diversity in temperate areas of the world. The caecilians -- a legless, fossorial group -- are also a mostly tropical group, with none reaching as far north as the United States.

The amphibians arose over 365 million years ago -- the first group of vertebrates to become adapted to a terrestrial existence -- and have evolved into an enormous diversity of life forms that have a wide range of life histories and ecological lifestyles. They range from tiny frogs that are less than a centimeter long to large salamanders that can reach 1.8 meters in length. Most species have a biphasic life cycle, with a gilled, larval stage and a terrestrial or semi-aquatic adult stage. Some species have eliminated the larval stage altogether and reproduce on land, while others are permanently aquatic with gilled adults that never leave the water. All have scaleless, permeable skin and most species will quickly desiccate if exposed to dry substrates for prolonged periods. The great majority of species live in wet or moist habitats, but some have managed to exploit drier communities by having either behavioral adaptations such as burrowing or physiological adaptations that reduce water loss.

North Carolina has a remarkable diversity of amphibians for a temperate region of the world. There are 94 currently recognized species, including 63 species of salamanders and 31 species of frogs. The salamander diversity is exceptional both in terms of the number of species and their taxonomic diversity, with several species present in the state that are found nowhere else in the world. Several factors contribute to the large number and diversity of amphibians within North Carolina, including North Carolina’s physiographic diversity, ancient mountains, and latitude.

The southern Appalachians have served as a major center of speciation for salamanders, particularly the plethodontids that dominate forested landscapes in eastern North America. New species have also arisen in the southeastern Coastal Plain, in part due to major river systems that help to isolate regional groups of populations and allow evolutionary divergence. The Coastal Plain has also served as an ancient dispersal corridor and refuge for taxa such as the hylid frogs that have more tropical or subtropical affinities.

Many of our native plethodontid salamanders are members of cryptic species complexes and constitute the most taxonomically challenging group of vertebrates in North America. Members of these complexes, such as the Slimy Salamander complex, have often undergone genetic and evolutionary divergence with little underlying morphological change. The members of a complex often cannot be reliably distinguished from one another using coloration, size, or patterning. They are largely assigned to species based on geographic range, since in almost all cases the recognized species have non-overlapping ranges. They frequently inbreed freely in zones of contact, which further complicates decisions about how many species to recognize. Taxonomists and systematists have had endless debates over the years about exactly what constitutes a ‘species’ and what criteria should be used for splitting regionally differentiated forms into separate species. There is no widespread agreement, and many of the currently recognized species are subject to reinterpretation. We provide information on the taxonomic work on species complexes in the individual species accounts.

The North Carolina Amphibians Website is being developed through a partnership between the North Carolina State Parks System (NC DPR) and the North Carolina Biodiversity Project (NCBP), a non-profit, education- and conservation-oriented association composed of field biologists specializing in taxonomy, ecology, and conservation of the state’s native species and ecosystems. This partnership serves NC DPR’s mission of providing "environmental education opportunities that promote stewardship of the state's natural heritage". It is also serves NCBP core interests in promoting awareness and interest in the general public concerning the state’s rich variety of native species, and in generating a wide base of support for the conservation of these resources.

The authors of the Amphibians of North Carolina Website are:

Jim Petranka (lead author; Professor Emeritus, University of North Carolina at Asheville, NC)
Steve Hall (Landscape Ecologist, NC Natural Heritage Program, retired)
Tom Howard (Webmaster, NC Division of Parks and Recreation)

Major contributors:

Harry LeGrand (Vertebrate Biologist, NC Natural Heritage Program, retired)


The authors may be contacted at: North Carolina Amphibians Website@outlook.com

How to Get Involved

The mission of the NCBP is to gather information on the biodiversity of North Carolina and to then disseminate it as widely as possible. As a key part of that process, we want to involve the public as much as possible, not only as recipients of this information, but as active partners in its acquisition. For that reason, we have created an online submission form that can be used by anyone -- expert or novice -- to send records to this website. We also need to ensure that the data we accept and subsequently publish on this website is as scientifically accurate as we can make it. The following description provides information on the types of data we are looking for and the steps we follow in processing records that are submitted to us.

Submitting a Record

Before submitting a record, read Terms of Use/Privacy Statement. Our intention is to make the information gathered in the website as widely available as we can make it. We therefore follow the guidelines established for Fair Use of published materials. However, for anyone who would like to have stronger copyright recognition for the photographs they submit, we accept photographs that contain the copyright symbol, indicating the need for the photographer to be contacted for any third party use.

To send us a record, click on Submit a Public Record on the menu located on the left side of the Home Page. Only records of reliably identified species serve our interests to document the distribution, natural history, and conservation status of the Amphibians of North Carolina. To make the record most useful for these purposes, therefore, we require that certain information be filled in, as indicated in red text on the form.

Species Name

The submitters themselves need to take the initial step in trying to identify the species the record represents; a provisional scientific or common name must be entered in order to open the main submission form. This requirement helps the submitter learn more about the identification process (and its problems). It also helps us process the records more quickly. For help in establishing this preliminary identification, click on the Identification Guide located on the menu at the top of the Home Page. There are several web sites that will help with the identification. Although your initial identification does not have to be completely accurate – we will vet the photograph or other evidence as part of the acceptance process – the more precise it is, the faster we can process the submission. Conversely, records that require more time and effort on the part of our reviewers are likely to be delayed in acceptance, sometimes (we regret to say) indefinitely.

Identity of the Observer

The name of the person must be included and an email address where the submitter can be reached; we do not accept any records from anonymous or otherwise unverifiable sources. Only the observer’s name will show up in the species accounts, not the email address, which will be used only to notify the submitter concerning the status of their record (see Vetting Process below); it will not be shared with anyone outside of the website group without permission from the submitter.

Date and Location of the Record

For the record to be useful to us, we require information on the date and location of the observation. The dates will be used to compile phenology charts, with separate charts used for reproductive activity, larval periods, and general above ground activity by the adults. Locations for all records – adults or juveniles – will be used to fill in the distribution maps displayed for the species. Although only the counties will show up in the public display on the website, we need more accurate locational information to help identify sites of particular conservation interest, as well as to help identity the habitat and landscape context where the record was made. In some cases – particularly for salamanders – the location where the observation was made can be important in the identification of the species. The coordinates of the location – in decimal degrees -- can be entered using either data from a personal GPS or using Map It, the mapping tool included on the form. We would also like the name of the site to be included, if identifiable (e.g., a town or nature preserve), along with any descriptive subsite information that can be provided (e.g., neighborhood name, street address or location along a road, or topographic location – e.g., floodplain or ridgetop).

Number of Individuals; Methods of Observation; Life Stages

The abundance of a species is usually one of the main factors determining its conservation status – the less abundant the species, the higher its presumed risk and hence the higher its priority for protection. However, the number of amphibians seen at a particular time and place varies widely, depending on weather conditions, timing of the life cycle of the particular species, and the methods used to make the observations. While not required -- we will enter a single individual as a default if no estimates of numbers are recorded -- either exact counts of the individuals seen at a given time or estimates (for observations above 5 individuals) provide useful information on population sizes and trends.

Habitat

Gathering information on the habitats used by the species is one of the most important goals of this project -- we use this information to help determine the ecological and conservation needs of the species. One of our main missions of the NCBP overall is to acquaint the public about the diversity of habitats we have in North Carolina and how each one plays a role in sustaining our native biodiversity.

The habitats listed on the entry form are fairly simplified, our hope being that most people will be able to use them to describe the general environment where the record was obtained. A description of each habitat type is also provided that can be pulled up by clicking on the name of the habitat. Note that more than one habitat type can be selected. Since amphibians observed at breeding sites often reside as adults at distances well away from those sites, we ask that all habitat types within a radius of 100 yards be recorded.

Comments

The Comments section is optional but can be used to record information about habitat, mating behavior, predator-prey interactions, or other behavioral or ecological observations of interest. Inclusion of this information makes a record far more valuable than just a dot on the map or bar on the phenology chart (as valuable as those pieces of information are).

Adding a Photograph or Sound File

Either a photograph (including copies of sound spectrographs) or a sound file (for frogs and toads) provide the basis for documenting a record and must be included as part of all submissions (records from specimens obtained from surveys conducted by expert herpetologists are recorded through a separate process). For photographs, use your file browser to locate where the file is stored on your computer; open the file by clicking on the name or image, and then click on the Open button shown at the bottom of the form. Usually only one photograph should be entered per species per site per date, but up to three shots can be entered, showing a given individual from different angles or several individuals displaying a range of variation in pattern or other features. Dusky salamanders (Desmognathus spp.) are particularly difficult to identify from single photographs, and we recommend submitting images of both the dorsal and ventral surfaces where needed. Add additional information in the comment box that will help confirm the identity of the species (e.g., "toe-tips dark; belly black.")

Use the same process to load sound files, but note that we currently only accept files in the MP3 format. Generally, only 10 seconds of the songs are needed for identification purposes; files that are too large will not be accepted. For longer recordings, we recommend that a spectrograph be submitted instead (as an image file).

Completion of the Form

Following the Security Check and acceptance of the Terms of Use at the bottom of the form, click on the Submit button to enter the completed record.

Vetting Process

Once a record has been submitted, the proposed identification is reviewed by our team of experts to confirm its accuracy. Accepted records will be displayed for a short time on the Recent Entries table and will be entered at the same time to the appropriate Species Account. Note that in some cases, we may not be able to identify the specimen to species and may decide to place them in accounts we have set up for unidentified species belonging to a given genus. Where the record is not accepted or where we have identified it as a a different species, or where additional information is required, a message may be sent to the submitter via email.

Currently, we are able to process the records within a two week period (usually less).

How to Identify an Amphibian

The identifying features of each of the frogs and salamanders that occur in North Carolina are described in the species accounts. These description emphasize the features that we ourselves use in vetting records that are submitted to this website. We also single out the species that we do not believe can be identified based solely on external features; in many of the salamanders, for instance, identification to the species level requires genetic analysis, involving molecular investigation of their DNA. Our website is not intended, however, to be used primarily an identification resource. Instead, there are many other sources of information on that aspect of amphibian studies that we highly recommend in that regard.

FIELD GUIDES

Four that we recommend are:

Amphibians and Reptiles of the Carolinas and Virginia, 2nd Ed , by J.C. Beane, A.L. Braswell, J.C. Mitchell, W.M. Palmer, and J.R. Harrison III; Universtiy of North Carolina Press, 2010. This book covers most of the Amphibian species found in our area (several recently described species are not included), providing identification information, range maps, and details about habitats and life histories

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Smokies, by S.G. Tilley and J.E. Huheey; Great Smoky Mountains Association.

Peterson Field Guide To Reptiles And Amphibians Eastern and Central North America, 4th Edition, R. Powell, R. Conant, and J.T. Collins; Mariner Books.

The Frogs and Toads of North America: A Comprehensive Guide to Their Identification, Behavior, and Calls, L. Elliott, C. Gerhardt, and C. Davidson; Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

WEBSITES

There are now several websites that specialize in providing help with identifying amphibians:

NC Museum of Natural Sciences, Herpetology Collection

Amphibians and Reptiles of North Carolina

Frogs and Toads of North Carolina, and Salamanders of North Carolina. NC Wildlife Resources Commission

AmphibiaWeb

HerpMapper

iNaturalist

TECHNICAL LITERATURE

A vast amount of technical information on amphibians can now be searched for online. For older literature, an important resource is the Biodiversity Heritage Library. For more recent references, Google Scholar provides a way to locate articles on particular species or subjects. A number of major compilations have been written on the amphibians of North America. Two of the most recent works are:

Salamanders of the United States and Canada, by J.W. Petranka; Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998. This reference was drawn on heavily for this website, the preparation of which allowed a great deal of newer material to be incorporated.

Frogs of the United States and Canada, by C.K. Dodd; Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. This is a very comprehensive work on North American frogs that we relied on heavily for life history information.

SPECIMEN-BASED IDENTIFICATION

If you are fortunate enough to live near a large reference collection, such as the Herpetology Collection at the NC Museum of Natural Sciences in Raleigh, direct comparison of a specimen to those identified in the collection offers one of the most traditional means of determining an unknown species.

Individual members of the North Carolina Biodiversity Project may also be willing to identify collected specimens, but usually only where a specimen would be particularly interesting taxonomically or where its occurrence would be new for either the state as a whole or for a particular region or habitat type (see Contacts for more information).

The Need to Conserve Our Frogs and Salamanders

Frogs and salamanders fulfill important ecological roles in natural ecosystem. The juveniles and adults are predators that feed on a wide variety of insects and other invertebrates, and large salamanders and frogs frequently take other vertebrates. Amphibians are a significant food resource for many community members such as snakes, birds, and mammals. The tadpoles and salamander larvae are usually the numerically dominant vertebrates in seasonal and semi-permanent wetlands. They serve as prey for other community members and have important functions in organizing communities through their own actions as predators and competitors. In addition to their ecological significance, amphibians have been widely used in medical and biological research to better understand cellular, molecular, physiological and developmental processes in vertebrates that are applicable to human health.

Amphibians are undergoing a global decline, with perhaps nearly a third of the world’s species threatened with extinction. The causes of the declines are complex, but ultimately tied to the explosion in human population growth and resource use during the last century. Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation are the most important causes for amphibian declines. Major losses have occurred due to the widespread deforestation of the planet, the massive losses or degradation of natural wetlands, and habitat loss and fragmentation associated with urbanization and agricultural activities.

Humans have also impacted amphibians by spreading diseases globally or altering habitats in ways that increase the frequency of parasites or pathogens. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is the best known, and has severely impacted amphibian populations in many areas of the world. Numerous other pathogens and disease agents are contributing to declines such as Ranavirus here in North Carolina. Chemical contaminants like pesticides, heavy metals from mining operations, and nitrates from anthropogenic sources are harming amphibians. The introduction of non-native species like The Cane Toad, The American Bullfrog, and predatory fishes have contributed to declines globally.

North Carolina has not been spared. One only has to consider for a moment how much the state has changed since European colonization when extensive old-growth forests covered much of the state, fire-maintained Longleaf Pine communities covered much of the Coastal Plain, and a complex matrix of natural wetlands and pristine streams and rivers occurred across the state. Human population growth and associated increases in industrialization, urbanization, infrastructure, agricultural activities, and intensive silvicultural practices have resulted in the widespread loss and degradation of habitats. Increasing traffic volume over the years has increased losses as amphibians migrate to and from breeding sites. Climate change will likely adversely affect many amphibians in North Carolina in the future due to increasing temperatures, more extreme weather events, and rising sea levels that can result in salinization of freshwaters.

Landowners in North Carolina can help to minimize the decline of amphibians by leaving natural wetlands intact, by providing forested buffer zones around breeding ponds and streams, and by constructing wildlife ponds that lack fish.